Definition of self-medication: a scoping review.

Self-medication (SM) is a global and growing phenomenon. It represents a public health problem due to antibiotic resistance, risk of adverse drug reactions, drug-drug interactions, disease masking, and increased morbidity. There is not a consensus on the definition of SM. The definitions found in different studies make it difficult to address this problem from a theoretical perspective and therefore find an adequate solution to this public health problem. The aim of this article is to search the medical literature to characterize the current understanding of SM in the medical community. We conducted a scoping review of definitions of SM by searching on PubMed - Medline, Embase, and LILACS using the following combination of keywords: 'self-prescription' or 'self prescription', 'self-medication' or 'self medication', or 'automedication' and 'definition' or 'explanation'. The search was limited to articles containing the definition of SM, with no limit on language or year. Duplicate studies and those that did not mention the definition of SM were excluded from the final review. A total of 65 studies were included in the final selection. We found a vast heterogeneity in the definition of SM. Most articles based their definition of SM on the process of obtaining the drug, the nonparticipation of a specific health professional, the source of the medication, and the reason for SM. Other interesting concepts such as self-care, nonadherence to a prescription, reuse of stored drugs, and sharing and lending medicines were also considered forms of SM by other authors, however. This study highlights the need to reach a consensus regarding the definition of SM to adequately propose strategies to address this global health problem. This study shows the diverse concepts that need to be included in a future definition of SM. Plain Language Summary: Definition of self-medication: a review with systematic methodology Self-medication (SM) is a global and growing phenomenon that represents a public health problem due to antibiotic resistance, risk of dangerous side effects, interactions between drugs, and disease masking. Currently, there is not a consensus on the definition of SM, which makes it difficult to address this problem and therefore find an adequate solution. Making a standard definition would allow the development of programs focused on addressing drug-related problems associated with self-medication behavior. The purpose of this article is to search the medical literature to define the current understanding of SM in the medical community. We included a total of 65 studies and found a great variance in the definition of SM. Most articles based their definition of SM on the process of obtaining the drug, the nonparticipation of a specific health professional, the source of the medication, and the reason for SM. Other interesting concepts such as self-care, not following a prescription, reuse of stored drugs, and sharing and lending medicines were also considered forms of SM by other authors, however. Furthermore, this study highlights that SM is a wider concept that goes beyond aiming to promote and restore health, as aesthetic and recreational purposes are also reasons for SM that can put individuals at risk and compromise the correct and safe use of medications.

Prescription for COVID-19 by non-medical professionals during the pandemic in Colombia: a cross-sectional study.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in the behavior of self-medication (SM). Given the massive release of misleading information during the pandemic, some pharmacies recommend drugs such as ivermectin, azithromycin, and hydroxychloroquine that are not useful for preventing or treating COVID-19 and could expose patients to unnecessary adverse drug reactions (ADRs), drug-drug interactions (DDIs), disease masking, and antibiotic resistance. Rationale: SM with drugs advertised for COVID-19 can have consequences, and people should be aware of approved uses, potential contraindications, and ADRs. Thus, the aim of this study was to know the drug therapies including natural products and homeopathic drugs offered by Colombian pharmaceutical establishments for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19, as well as the information provided on the safe use of the product. Methods: An observational, cross-sectional mystery shopping study was carried out to determine the pharmaceutical alternatives for the management of COVID-19 offered by pharmaceutical establishments (drugstores, pharmacies, homeopathic pharmacies, and nutritional supplements stores) in Colombia, and information related to the safe use of the product. The study included 482 pharmaceutical establishments from 16 Colombian departments. Data collection was done through telephone calls to each of the establishments following an interview protocol pretending to be a patient who presents symptoms related to COVID-19. Results: About 57.3% (276) of the establishments recommended a product for the treatment of COVID-19 infection, 66.6% (321) asked whether the caller had COVID-19 symptoms and what they are, and 44.2% (213) suggested taking a COVID-19 test. Of 59 drugs suggested by pharmacies, the most recommended were azithromycin, ivermectin, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and ASA (aspirin). From the establishments that recommended a product, dosage was indicated in 85.5% (236) of the pharmaceutical establishments and 14.5% (40) of the establishments reported the most common adverse effects of this substance. About 9.4% (26) of the establishments reported possible interactions of the recommended drugs and substances with food, beverages, or supplements.Conclusion: Pharmaceutical establishments in Colombia seem to have significantly contributed to self-medication for COVID-19 in Colombia during the pandemic. This behavior is inappropriate, since the mild forms of the disease do not have a specific treatment. Plain Language Summary: Self-medication induced by pharmaceutical establishments in Colombia during the COVID-19 pandemic Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in the behavior of self-medication (SM). Given the massive release of misleading information during the pandemic, some pharmacies recommend drugs such as ivermectin, azithromycin, hydroxychloroquine among others, which are not useful for preventing or treating COVID-19 and could expose patients to unnecessary side effects and interactions with other medications. People should be aware of the approved and non-approved uses, and potential side effects of these drugs. Rationale: The aim of this study was to know the drugs, including natural products and homeopathic drugs, offered by Colombian pharmaceutical establishments for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19, as well as the information provided on the safe use of the product. Methods: The study was done using the mystery shopping method, collecting data through telephone calls to each of the establishments by a trained individual pretending to be a patient with COVID-19 symptoms. The study included 482 pharmaceutical establishments from 16 Colombian departments. Results: Of 59 drugs suggested by pharmacies, the most recommended were azithromycin, ivermectin, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and aspirin. The recommended dose was indicated in 85.5% (236) of the pharmaceutical establishments, and 14.5% (40) of them reported the most common adverse effects of the recommended product. About 9.4% (26) of the establishments reported possible interactions of the recommended drugs and substances with food, beverages, or supplements. Conclusion: The majority of the pharmaceutical establishments included in the study promoted inadequate self-medication for COVID-19 in Colombia during the pandemic.

Factors that Facilitate and Hinder the Comprehension of Patient Information Leaflets (PILs): A Brief Scoping Review.

Introduction: Patient information leaflets (PILs) of medicinal products are informative documents that accompany medicines and explain their components, modes of use, interactions with other medicines, and other relevant issues. When patients do not adequately understand the information in the leaflets, they may engage in behaviors that affect their health (e.g., self-medication). Objective: To identify patient-related factors and characteristics of PILs that can promote cognitive, emotional, and behavioral changes that lead to appropriate drug use practices. Additionally, we aimed to determine strategies that could be implemented to design leaflets that convey adequate information and are easier to understand. Method and Results: We evaluated scientific articles published in databases and containing information on PILs suitability to be used in a patient population. A total of 51 articles were selected as the sample. Certain leaflet factors that favored or hindered understanding were identified (e.g., format in which the leaflets are presented, their structure, their adaptation to the sociodemographic and linguistic characteristics of the population, their wording…). Similarly, we also identified patient factors, such as previous experience taking the drugs referred to in the leaflet; the type of emotions experienced when reading the leaflets; the emphasis on the adverse effects of the medications; sociodemographic variables (i.e., age or educational level); and degree of interest in their own healthcare. Conclusion: Patient and leaflet factors influence the comprehension of information in the PIL; hence, emphasis should be placed on these factors to increase treatment and medication adherence and to reduce health-risk behaviors.

Los estudios bibliométricos en el campo de la psicología iberoamericana: Una revisión metabibliométrica / The bibliometric studies in the field of Ibero-American psychology: A metabibliometric review

Resumen La bibliometría consiste en el tratamiento matemático y estadístico de la información científica y, por ello, se la concibe como la cuantificación de la información bibliográfica susceptible de ser analizada. Más allá de que algunos autores la conciban como una metodología y otros como una técnica, la bibliometría facilita la organización, selección y categorización de la información para un tratamiento cuantitativo y cualitativo. Desde hace más de tres décadas, los estudios bibliométricos han comenzado a proliferar con diferentes usos, orientaciones y aplicaciones en el campo de la psicología iberoamericana. En este trabajo se analizan los estudios bibliométricos en el campo de la psicología iberoamericana recuperados de tres bases de datos: Dialnet (España), Redalyc (México) y SciELO (Brasil). A partir de una muestra de 81 trabajos seleccionados, se realizó una categorización según las diferentes líneas de investigación, los autores más frecuentes, los países de los autores, el rango de años de las publicaciones, el idioma de las publicaciones, el género en la redacción de los trabajos, las revistas que más estudios bibliométricos publicaron y las más analizadas desde la perspectiva bibliométrica. También se analizó el contexto histórico de aparición de los estudios bibliométricos en el campo de la psicología de Iberoamérica. Se concluye que los estudios bibliométricos son un importante recurso metodológico para la evaluación de la disciplina y profesión psicológica, siempre que logren ir más allá de la mera descripción de datos cuantitativos y puedan complementarse con análisis cualitativos, lo que brindaría mayor potencialidad interpretativa y explicativa.

Abstract Bibliometry consists on the mathematical and statistical treatment of published scientific information. This methodology, or technique (following some authors), includes the quantification of bibliographic information that can be analyzed. Bibliometric and qualitative data reviews can be combined in order to offer high-quality conclusions. For more than three decades, bibliometric studies have proliferated with different uses, orientations, and applications in Ibero-American psychology. All the classic areas of psychology (basic psychological processes, clinical and health psychology, organizational and work psychology, educational psychology), as well as new areas, such as sports psychology, traffic psychology, consumer psychology, and others have been subject of bibliometric works. Several productions can be recognized where bibliometry is used for historical analysis, review of specialized literature, scientific journals analysis, and the recognition of different areas of research. The goal of this work is to provide a metabibliometric analysis, that is, a bibliometry of bibliometric studies. It is a descriptive study in which different documentary sources are retrieved, classified, and analyzed based on the proper procedure of bibliometric studies. This study examined the scientific and scholarly productions in the field of Ibero-American psychology, using three specific databases: Dialnet (Spain), Redalyc (Mexico), and SciELO (Brazil). The choice of such databases was because they provide the indexation of a large number of psychology journals and also allow free access to their contents, which gives some coverage to the psychological production of the Ibero-American region. The search was guided by the following general descriptors: "Bibliometric" and "Psychology", present in any of the search fields of these databases. These two words are functionally equivalent to detect items in Spanish and Portuguese (because all articles have abstracts in English). Interdisciplinary studies were ruled out, and those clearly outside of psychological science or the profession of psychology. The final refined sample of 81 articles were classified according to the following indicators: a) lines of research; b) more frequent authors; c) countries of the authors; d) range of years of publications; e) language of the publications; f) gender in the writing of the works; g) the journals that published the most bibliometric studies; and h) the most analyzed journals from the bibliometric perspective. The vast majority of articles are from the present century (70), which highlights the recent explosion of work in the field. For reference only, eight articles were published in the 1990s, 34 articles were published in the 2000s, and 36 articles were published in the current half-decade. The language of the articles is distributed as follows: 71 in Spanish (88 %), 5 in English (6 %), and 5 in Portuguese (6 %). The proportion by gender of correspondence authors reflects that 40 % are women (33 articles), and 60 % are men (48 articles), always considering the first signatory in cases of multiple authorship. The countries according to the correspondence author, taking the first author in the cases of multiple authorships, are: Spain (45), Colombia (15), Argentina (6), Brazil (5), Mexico (4), Chile (3), Peru (2) and Costa Rica (1). Results confirm that the bibliometric research design is a consistent methodological approach to evaluate the field of psychology as a discipline and a professional practice in Ibero-America. These results do not reflect the entire set of bibliometric research in Ibero-American psychology. However, they can also be considered as a representative map of bibliometric studies in the region. The most significant criticism that can be indicated for these bibliometric studies is the abusive descriptive perspective that appears in them. It would be desirable for this kind of research to incorporate other analytical perspectives to go beyond the purely descriptive, which could obtain greater interpretative and explanatory potential regarding what was investigated.

El Observatorio del Comportamiento de Automedicación de la Universidad del Rosario y su rol en la pandemia de COVID-19 / The Self-Medication Behavior Observatory of the Universidad del Rosario and its role in the COVID-19 Pandemic

El observatorio del Comportamiento de Automedicación (OCAM) estudia la automedicación (AM), básicamente, como un comportamiento individual que, según la definición de la Librería Nacional de Medicina (NLM, por sus siglas en inglés), consiste en "la autoadministración de medicamentos no recetados por un médico o de una manera no dirigida por un médico". La Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) entiende este comportamiento como "la práctica mediante la cual los individuos tratan sus enfermedades y condiciones con medicamentos que están aprobados y disponibles sin prescripción, y que son seguros y efectivos cuando se usan según las indicaciones". En este contexto, tradicionalmente la AM se ha entendido ligada al autocuidado, es decir, adscrita al contexto de la salud. Sin embargo, los trabajos realizados desde el OCAM hacen pensar que se trata de un comportamiento mucho más complejo y determinado por multitud de variables.

The Observatory of Self-Medication Behavior (OCAM) studies self-medication (SM), basically, as an individual behavior that, according to the National Library of Medicine (NLM) definition, consists of "the self-administration of medicines not prescribed by a physician or in a manner not directed by a physician". The World Health Organization (WHO) understands this behavior as "the practice whereby individuals treat their diseases and conditions with medicines that are approved and available without a prescription, and that are safe and effective when used as directed." In this context, MA has traditionally been understood as linked to self-care, that is, ascribed to the context of health. However, the work carried out by OCAM suggests that it is a much more complex behavior determined by a multitude of variables.

La psicología del consumidor en Colombia: una revisión bibliométrica de las publicaciones científicas indexadas / Consumer psychology in Colombia: A bibliometric review of the indexed scholarly publications

Resumen La psicología del consumidor es un campo aplicado que se vale de las aproximaciones teóricas de la ciencia psicológica para entender el comportamiento del consumidor. Históricamente, la psicología del consumidor se ha desarrollado fundamentalmente en Estados Unidos y, en la actualidad, se ha fortalecido en otros países. Sin embargo, aún no se ha estudiado la contribución de Colombia al campo de la psicología del consumidor. Por tal motivo, se efectuó un análisis bibliométrico de la producción científica en psicología del consumidor publicada en español por investigadores afiliados a instituciones colombianas. Se seleccionó una muestra de 74 artículos académicos que abordan algún aspecto del área, publicados en revistas científicas indexadas en las siguientes bases de datos: Redalyc, DOAJ, Psicodoc, Scopus, Scielo, Web of Science y Google Scholar. Se utilizaron los siguientes descriptores de búsqueda: psicología, consumidor, Colombia, psicología del consumidor, comportamiento del consumidor y consumo. Se evidenció que la producción nacional ha crecido sostenidamente en las últimas décadas y que ya comienza a tener impacto por número de citaciones; no obstante, aún requiere de mayor colaboración internacional para su consolidación.

Abstract Consumer psychology is an applied field that uses theoretical approaches to psychological science to understand consumer behavior. Historically, consumer psychology has been developed primarily in the United States and now strengthened in other countries. However, the contribution of Colombia to the field has not been studied yet. For this reason, a bibliometric analysis of the academic production in consumer psychology was carried out in Spanish by authors affiliated to Colombian institutions. It was selected a sample of 74 academic articles that addressed certain aspect of the field, published in scientific journals indexed in the following databases: Redalyc, DOAJ, Psicodoc, Scopus, Scielo, Web of Science and Google Scholar. The following descriptors were used in the search: psychology, consumer, Colombia, consumer psychology, consumer behavior and consumption. It was showed that production has grown steadily in recent decades and this starts to impact by means of citations. However, this is a national production that still requires greater international collaboration for its consolidation.

Dos décadas de Acta Colombiana de Psicología: un análisis bibliométrico / Duas décadas de Acta Colombiana de Psicología: uma análise bibliométrica / Two decades of Acta Colombiana de Psicología: a bibliometric analysis

Resumen El objetivo del presente estudio fue realizar un análisis bibliométrico de la revista Acta Colombiana de Psicología, debido a sus dos décadas de trabajo ininterrumpido (1998-2017). Inicialmente, se describen elementos históricos en la trayectoria de la revista y se releva su evolución cronológica a partir de una base de datos que consideró 388 artículos científicos en su muestra final; posteriormente, se realizaron los análisis de los índices de productividad (Lotka) y de las temáticas y metodologías utilizadas. Asimismo, se desarrolló un análisis de los indicadores de colaboración y de las relaciones entre los autores con respecto a los países firmantes. En los resultados se destaca la gran cantidad de trabajos provenientes de instituciones mexicanas, se visualiza un alza sostenida en la colaboración -lo que se evidencia en los índices de Lawani y Subramanyam-, y se encuentra que la mayor cantidad de trabajos se enfocó en las áreas de psicología clínica y de la salud. El análisis realizado permite exhibir lo realizado por la revista a lo largo de dos décadas de trabajo científico en las que se aportó de manera fundamental al desarrollo de la psicología en Hispanoamérica.

Resumo O objetivo do presente estudo foi realizar uma análise bibliométrica da revista Acta Colombiana de Psicología, devido a suas duas décadas de trabalho ininterrupto (1998-2017). Inicialmente, descrevem-se elementos históricos na trajetória da revista e revela-se sua evolução cronológica a partir de uma base de dados que considerou 388 artigos científicos em sua amostra final. Posteriormente, foram realizadas as análises dos índices de produtividade (Lotka) e das temáticas e metodologias utilizadas. Além disso, foi desenvolvida uma análise dos indicadores de colaboração e das relações entre os autores com respeito aos países signatários. Nos resultados, destaca-se a grande quantidade de trabalhos provenientes de instituições mexicanas, visualiza-se uma alta prolongada na colaboração - o que se evidencia nos índices de Lawani e Subramanyam -, e nota-se que a maior quantidade de trabalhos concentrou-se nas áreas de psicologia clínica e da saúde. A análise realizada permite exibir o feito da revista ao longo de duas décadas de trabalho científico nas quais colaborou de maneira fundamental para o desenvolvimento da psicologia na América espanhola.

Abstract The aim of the present study was to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the journal Acta Colombiana de Psicología, by virtue of its two decades of uninterrupted work (1998-2017). Initially, historical elements are described in the trajectory of the journal and its chronological evolution is revealed from a database that in its final sample took into account 388 scientific articles. Subsequently, the appraisal of the productivity indices (Lotka) as well as of the topics and methodologies used was carried out. Likewise, an appraisal of the collaboration indicators and the relationships between the authors with respect to the signatory countries was performed. The results highlight the large number of papers from Mexican institutions, a sustained increase in collaboration is visualized -which is evident in the Lawani and Subramanyam indices-, and it is found that the largest amount of papers focused on the areas of clinical and health psychology. The analysis undertaken allows showing what the journal has achieved throughout two decades of scientific work during which it contributed fundamentally to the development of psychology in Latin America.

Avian Emotions: Comparative Perspectives on Fear and Frustration.

Emotions are complex reactions that allow individuals to cope with significant positive and negative events. Research on emotion was pioneered by Darwin's work on emotional expressions in humans and animals. But Darwin was concerned mainly with facial and bodily expressions of significance for humans, citing mainly examples from mammals (e.g., apes, dogs, and cats). In birds, emotional expressions are less evident for a human observer, so a different approach is needed. Understanding avian emotions will provide key evolutionary information on the evolution of related behaviors and brain circuitry. Birds and mammals are thought to have evolved from different groups of Mesozoic reptiles, theropod dinosaurs and therapsids, respectively, and therefore, their common ancestor is likely to be a basal reptile living about 300 million years ago, during the Carboniferous or Permian period. Yet, birds and mammals exhibit extensive convergence in terms of relative brain size, high levels of activity, sleep/wakefulness cycles, endothermy, and social behavior, among others. This article focuses on two basic emotions with negative valence: fear and frustration. Fear is related to the anticipation of dangerous or threatening stimuli (e.g., predators or aggressive conspecifics). Frustration is related to unexpected reward omissions or devaluations (e.g., loss of food or sexual resources). These results have implications for an understanding of the conditions that promote fear and frustration and for the evolution of supporting brain circuitry.

Why are some dimensions integral? Testing two hypotheses through causal learning experiments.

Compound generalization and dimensional generalization are traditionally studied independently by different groups of researchers, who have proposed separate theories to explain results from each area. A recent extension of Shepard's rational theory of dimensional generalization allows an explanation of data from both areas within a single framework. However, the conceptualization of dimensional integrality in this theory (the direction hypothesis) is different from that favored by Shepard in his original theory (the correlation hypothesis). Here, we report two experiments that test differential predictions of these two notions of integrality. Each experiment takes a design from compound generalization and translates it into a design for dimensional generalization by replacing discrete stimulus components with dimensional values. Experiment 1 showed that an effect analogous to summation is found in dimensional generalization with separable dimensions, but the opposite effect is found with integral dimensions. Experiment 2 showed that the analogue of a biconditional discrimination is solved faster when stimuli vary in integral dimensions than when stimuli vary in separable dimensions. These results, which are analogous to more "non-linear" processing with integral than with separable dimensions, were predicted by the direction hypothesis, but not by the correlation hypothesis. This confirms the assumptions of the unified rational theory of stimulus generalization and reveals interesting links between compound and dimensional generalization phenomena.

Social interaction and conditional self-discrimination under a paradigm of avoidance and positive reinforcement in Wistar rats / Interacción social y auto-discriminación condicional bajo un paradigma de reforzamiento positivo y evitación en ratas Wistar

The experiment reported here uses a conditional self-discrimination task to examine the influence of social interaction on the facilitation of self- discrimination in rats. The study is based on a previous report (Penagos- Corzo et al., 2011) showing positive evidence of such facilitation, but extending the exposition to social interaction conditions prior to training. Specifically, rats were assigned to three conditions with different levels of social interaction and exposed to two conditional self-discrimination tasks, under an avoidance and positive reinforcement paradigm, where they had to discriminate their own internal state (with or without methylphenidate). Our results indicate that conditional self-discrimination was higher in groups with higher social interaction than in those with lower interaction and support the conclusion that self-discrimination learning curves for different degrees of social interaction positively increased with number of sessions and level of interaction (AU)

El experimento aquí reportado usa una tarea de auto-discriminación condicional para examinar la influencia de la interacción social sobre la facilitación de la auto-discriminación en ratas. El estudio está basado en un reporte previo (Penagos-Corzo et al., 2011) que señala evidencia positiva, pero aquí se extiende la exposición a las condiciones de interacción social previas al entrenamiento. Concretamente, las ratas fueron asignadas a tres condiciones con diferentes niveles de interacción social y expuestas a dos tareas de auto- discriminación condicional, bajo un paradigma de evitación y de refuerzo positivo, donde tenían que discriminar su propio estado interno (con o sin metilfenidato). Nuestros resultados indican que la auto-discriminación condicional fue mayor en los grupos con mayor interacción social que en aquellos con menor interacción y apoyan la conclusión que indica que las curvas de aprendizaje de auto-discriminación para los diferentes grados de interacción social aumentaron positivamente con el número de sesiones y el nivel de interacción (AU)

Credibilidad percibida del periodismo a través de la Internet: una visión desde la psicología del consumidor / Perceived Quality of Online Journalism: a Vision From Consumer Psychology

En el presente artículo se describen algunos criterios de credibilidad percibida que las personas usan cuando juzgan el periodismo en Internet. Estos criterios fueron comparados con los hallados en la literatura en contextos internacionales sobre credibilidad en el periodismo. Con una muestra de 166 participantes, quienes calificaron con una escala tipo Likert. Se exploró la credibilidad percibida que tienen los colombianos sobre el periodismo en Internet. Los resultados encontrados muestran que hay concordancia entre los criterios encontrados en la literatura y los usados por los lectores, no obstante, se halló una correlación negativa entre la dependencia al Internet (profesional/académica) y el nivel de credibilidad, al igual que entre las variaciones en el nivel de credibilidad con base en algunas variables socio-demográficas.

This article describes some perceived credibility criteria that people use when judging Internet journalism. These criteria were compared with those found in the literature on journalism credibility in international contexts. With a sample of 166 participants who rated with a Likert scale, the perceived credibility that Colombian people have about Internet journalism was explored. Results show that there is agreement between the criteria found in the research literature and those used by online readers, however, was found a negative correlation between Internet dependence (professional/scholar) and the level of credibility as well as between changes in the level of credibility and some socio-demographic variables.

Evaluación del efecto de bloqueo en el condicionamiento clásico de preferencias / Assessment of the blocking effect in classical conditioning of preferences

Esta investigación experimental tuvo como objetivo poner a prueba el efecto de bloqueo de Kamin en el condicionamiento clásico de preferencias. Se diseñaron tres partes: Estudio 1, Experimento 1 y Experimento 2. El Estudio preliminar (n = 54) consistió en la elección de los estímulos condicionados (marcas publicitarias ficticias) y del estímulo incondicionado (figura femenina con una proporción controlada de la medida de cintura/ cadera). En el Experimento 1 (n = 60) se efectuó el entrenamiento en condicionamiento clásico de preferencias. Finalmente, en el Experimento 2 (n = 40), se examinó el efecto de bloqueo en el condicionamiento clásico de preferencias con pruebas de tipo cognoscitivo y afectivo. Participaron estudiantes universitarios de diferentes carreras entre 17 y 25 años. Los resultados indican que se manifestó un efecto de bloqueo en tres de las cuatro pruebas utilizadas para evaluar dicho fenómeno. Se plantea, a manera de conclusión, que este efecto potencialmente explica diferentes fenómenos en los campos de la publicidad y el mercadeo, especialmente en lo que concierne a competencia de marcas.

This experimental research was aimed to test Kamin's blocking effect in classical conditioning of preferences applied in the advertisement area. This study was divided into three parts: preliminary Study, Experiment 1, and Experiment 2. In the preliminary Study, both conditioned (a false publicity brand) and unconditioned stimuli (female figure with a controlled waist-to-hip ratio) were selected. Experiments 1 and 2 consisted of training in classical conditioning of preferences and blocking effect. 17-25 year-old undergraduate students of different careers participated in the present study. According to the results, a blocking effect was observed, suggesting an explanation for different phenomena in fields such as marketing or advertisement, especially when implying brands competition.

Del laboratorio al campo abierto: El uso de protocolos de adaptación y socialización en Rattus Norvegicus / From the lab to the open field: The use of adaptation and socialization protocols with Rattus Norvegicus

El objetivo de este artículo es presentar un protocolo para la adaptación y socialización de sujetos de investigación Rattus norvegicus, cepa Wistar, como parte de un proyecto que busca el entrenamiento de estos animales para la detección de explosivos, tanto en laboratorio como en campo abierto. Se describe el diseño de las habitaciones de los animales, que son distintas de las jaulas-hogar típicas de los bioterios estándar. A continuación, se relaciona la exposición de los animales a diferentes ambientes físicos. Por último, se examina el protocolo de socialización interespecífica de las ratas tanto con humanos como con animales de otras especies.

The goal of this paper is to introduce an adaptation-and-socialization protocol for animal subjects Rattus norvegicus, Wistar strain, into a research project that aims to train these animals to detect explosives, both in laboratory and open field. We describe the design of the home cages, which are different from the vivarium's standard home cages. Next, the exposure of the animals to different physical environments is related. Finally, the inter-specific socialization protocol of the rats with humans and other animals is described.

Automedicación y términos relacionados: una reflexión conceptual / Self-medication and related terms: a conceptual reflection / Automedicação e termos relacionados: urna reflexão conceitual

Introducción: la automedicación se ha convertido en una práctica creciente en la población mundial. Este fenómeno ha sido promovido como una forma de autocuidado, con impacto positivo en la reducción del gasto dentro de los sistemas de salud; sin embargo, también se ve con preocupación, por los potenciales efectos negativos relacionados con diagnósticos y manejos inadecuados, que pueden afectar la salud de los individuos. Esta doble percepción del fenómeno se relaciona, en parte, con una gran diversidad de términos y conceptos relacionados, que hacen difícil su abordaje teórico-empírico. Para hacer comparaciones epidemiológicas adecuadas se requiere armonizar las definiciones implicadas. Objetivo: analizar el concepto de automedicación y términos relacionados a partir de las definiciones que aparecen en la literatura especializada del tema. Conclusiones: en las últimas cuatro décadas ha habido una evolución tanto de los términos como de las definiciones relacionadas con automedicación, desde un concepto muy simple que implica la ausencia de prescripción médica, hasta conceptos más complejos que abarcan conductas de muy diversa índole; aun aquellas en las que media un acto de prescripción no seguido o no cumplido por el paciente. Adicionalmente se aprecia una proliferación conceptual que justifica el ordenamiento de los términos relacionados con automedicación. Este artículo presenta una propuesta de clasificación en cuatro grupos: a. automedicación, b. autocuidado, c. preparaciones farmacéuticas y medicamentos, y d. prescripción. Esta propuesta puede facilitar la exploración y análisis del fenómeno y permitir futuras aproximaciones teóricas.

Introduction: self-medication has become a growing practice in the world population. This phenomenon has been promoted as a form of self-care, with a positive impact on reducing spending in health systems, however there is concern about the potential negative effects related to inadequate diagnosis and treatment, which can affect health of individuals. This dual perception of the phenomenon is partly related to a variety of terms and concepts used, that make difficult its theoretical and empirical approach. Harmonization of the definitions involved is required in order to make adequate epidemiological comparisons. Objectives: analyze the concept of self medication and related terms from the definitions in the literature of the subject. Conclusions: in the last four decades it has been an evolution of both the wording and the definitions related to self-medication, from a very simple concept that implies the absence of prescription, to more complex ones that encompass very diverse behaviors, even those mediated by an act of prescription but not followed or not completed by the patient. Additionally the conceptual proliferation seen, justify the ordering of the terms related to self-medication. This paper presents a proposal for classification in four groups: a. self-medication, b. self care, c. pharmaceutical preparations and medicines, and d. prescription. This proposal should facilitate the exploration and analysis of the phenomenon and allow future theoretical approaches.

Introdução: A automedicação tem se convertido em uma prática crescente na população mundial. Este fenômeno tem sido promovido como uma forma de auto-cuidado, com impacto positivo na redução do gasto dentro dos sistemas de saúde; por enquanto, também se vê com preocupação pelos potenciais efeitos negativos relacionados com diagnósticos e gestões inadequadas, que podem afetar a saúde dos indivíduos. Esta dupla percepção do fenômeno se relaciona, em parte, com uma grande diversidade de termos e conceitos relacionados, que fazem difícil sua abordagem teórico-empirica. Para fazer comparações epidemiológicas adequadas se requere harmonizar as definições implicadas. Objetivo: Analisar o conceito de automedicação e termos relacionados a partir das definições que aparecem na literatura especializada do tema. Conclusões: Nas últimas quatro décadas tem havido uma evolução tanto dos termos quanto das definições relacionadas com automedicação desde um conceito muito simples que implica a ausência de prescrição médica, até conceitos mais complexos que abarcam condutas de muita diversa índole; ainda aquelas nas que intervém um ato de prescrição não seguido ou não cumprido pelo paciente. Adicionalmente se aprecia uma proliferação conceitual que justifica o ordenamento dos termos relacionados com automedicação. Este artigo apresenta uma proposta de classificação em quatro grupos: a. automedicação b. auto-cuidado c. preparações farmacêuticas e medicamentos, e d. prescrição. Esta proposta pode facilitar a exploração e análise do fenômeno e permitir futuras aproximações teóricas.

Desarrollo histórico de unapublicación científica: cuarenta años de la RevistaLatinoamericana de Psicología / Historical development of a scientific publication: Forty years of Latin American Journal of Psychology

La Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología (RLP) fue fundada en1969. En este artículo se presenta el contexto del desarrollo histórico de la psicología en Latinoamérica cuando se funda la revista y un análisis de sus principales características editoriales,incluyendo equipo editorial, revisión por pares, financiación y distribución, estructura y números monográficos, artículos publicados y su origen, autores y áreas de la psicología cubiertas. Se examina la influencia de la RLP en el desarrollo de otras revistas de psicología en Latinoamérica y España. Se discute el papel que la Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología hajugado en el desarrollo de la psicología en estas regiones y en la constitución de sus comunidades académicas. En particular, se argumenta que la RLP ha sido uno de los principales espacios de divulgación de la producción académica de los psicólogos de la región, además de haber marcado las tendencias e introducido múltiples áreas de especialidad de la psicología en lengua castellana.

The Latin American Journal of Psychology (RLP) was founded in 1969. In this article we present the historical context of psychology in Latin America when RLP was founded. An analysis of the main editorial characteristics ispresented, including editorial board, peer review, financial aspects and distribution, structure, special volumes,types of articles published, authors’ origin, and areas of psychology. The influence of RLP on the developmentof other journals in Latin America and Spain is examined. The role of RLP on the development of psychology inthese regions is also discussed. It is argued that RLP has been one of the main editorial enterprises dedicated tothe presentation of research production in psychology in Latin America, and has introduced several areas of psychology, unknown to the academic communities inthe region.

Construcción del Doctorado en Ciencias de la Salud de la Universidad del Rosario / Construction of the PhD in Health Sciences of the Universidad del Rosario

Desde hace año y medio se viene gestando en la Universidad del Rosario un proyecto de Doctorado en Ciencias de la Salud. Como coordinador de dicho proyecto, quiero aprovechar este editorial para compartir con la comunidad académica de ciencias de la salud el origen y desarrollo de este importante proyecto de la Escuela de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud. El 14 y 15 de abril de 2008 se celebró, en el Centro de Convenciones Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada de Bogotá, el Seminario Internacional sobre Políticas de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, organizado por el Ministerio de Educación Nacional, el Departamento Nacional de Planeación y Colciencias. En aquella ocasión se presentaron las experiencias de varios países sobre políticas nacionales para el fomento de la investigación y la innovación y, adicionalmente, se socializó an-te la comunidad académica el Proyecto de Ley Ciencia y Tecnología de Colombia (actualmente, Ley 1289 de 2009). En aquel entonces, en la Es-cuela de Ciencias de la Salud (conformada por las Facultades de Medicina y de Rehabilitación y Desarrollo Humano) se estaba gestando el actual Doctorado en Ciencias Básicas Biomédicas1 y se proyectaban, a largo plazo, sendos doctorados en áreas disciplinares como medicina, rehabilitación, psicología y enfermería.

For the last year and a half, a project for a Doctorate in Health Sciences has been in the making at the Universidad del Rosario. As coordinator of this project, I would like to take advantage of this editorial to share with the academic community of health sciences the origin and development of this important project of the School of Medicine and Health Sciences. On April 14 and 15, 2008, the International Seminar on Science, Technology and Innovation Policies, organized by the Ministry of National Education, the National Planning Department and Colciencias, was held at the Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada Convention Center in Bogota. On that occasion, the experiences of several countries on national policies for the promotion of research and innovation were presented and, in addition, the Colombian Science and Technology Bill (currently Law 1289 of 2009) was socialized before the academic community. At that time, the School of Health Sciences (formed by the Faculties of Medicine and Rehabilitation and Human Development) was developing the current Doctorate in Basic Biomedical Sciences1 and, in the long term, there were plans for doctoral programs in disciplinary areas such as medicine, rehabilitation, psychology and nursing.

Naloxone facilitates appetitive extinction and eliminates escape from frustration.

Two experiments tested the effects of opioid receptor blockage on behavior. In Experiment 1, rats reinforced for lever pressing with either sucrose or food pellets received treatment with saline, 2, and 10 mg/kg naloxone, i.p. (within-subject design). Naloxone 10 mg/kg increased response latency, but 2 mg/kg had no effect. When shifted to extinction (between-group design), naloxone (2 and 10 mg/kg) facilitated extinction relative to saline animals, after reinforcement with either sucrose or food pellets. In Experiment 2, after 10 sessions of access to 32% sucrose or an empty tube (between-group design), all rats were exposed to the empty tube while allowing them to jump over a barrier into a different compartment. Escape latencies were shorter for downshifted saline than for saline rats always given access to the empty tube. This escape-from-frustration effect was eliminated by naloxone (2 mg/kg, i.p.). Opioid blockage appears to reduce the value of alternative incentives.

Albert Ellis (1913-2007): pionero de los modelos mediacionales de intervención / Albert Ellis (1913-2007): pioneer of mediational models of intervention

El pasado 24 de julio de 2007 falleció uno de los gigantes de la psicología clínica: el Dr. Albert Ellis. Sus fructíferos 93 años lo llevaron a convertirse en una de las figuras más importantes de la psicología contemporánea, al punto que alguna vez fue declarado por sus colegas como más influyente que Sigmund Freud. En este artículo recogemos algunos datos biográficos del Dr. Ellis y le hacemos un homenaje académico recordando los fundamentos de su principal contribución: la terapia racional emotivo-conductual (TREC). Incluimos su teoría de la perturbación emocional, un recuento de las principales creencias irracionales, su modelo de intervención denominado A-B-C-D-E y una comparación con la terapia cognitiva (AU)

On July 24, 2007, Dr Albert Ellis, one of the giants of clinical psychology, died at 93 years of age. He was recognized as one of the most important figures of contemporary psychology, to the point of being considered by his peers to be more influential than Sigmund Freud. In this article we gather some biographical data of Dr. Ellis and we pay an academic tribute remembering the foundations of his main contribution: Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). His theory of emotional disturbance, a list of the main irrational beliefs, his intervention model denominated A-B-C-D-E, and a comparison with the cognitive therapy are included